Barriers Beyond Bandwidth: Self-Esteem, Confidence and Digital Access Among Rural Women and Third-Gender Individuals in India

Abstract

As India accelerates its transition into a digital economy, significant populations remain psychologically and structurally excluded from the digital revolution. This study investigates the intersection of digital exclusion and psychosocial wellbeing, particularly self-esteem and confidence among socially and economically marginalized women and third-gender individuals in rural Maharashtra. Using a mixed-method approach, data were collected from 24 respondents (19 women and 5 third-gender individuals) across six regions of the state. Quantitative data included 12 demographic and digital access variables, while qualitative data were generated through 28 semi-structured interview questions spanning seven thematic domains: social identity, digital access, digital skills, outcomes, empowerment, cultural norms, and civic exclusion. Findings suggest that digital exclusion is not solely a result of infrastructural inadequacies, but is deeply embedded in local caste-gender hierarchies, economic marginalization, and psycho-emotional barriers such as fear, ridicule, and low digital self-efficacy. Quantitative analysis revealed that respondents with no or limited digital literacy reported lower confidence and minimal participation in digital governance services. Thematic analysis highlighted patterns of internalized digital inferiority, learned helplessness, and gendered gatekeeping in device use and decision-making. Importantly, third-gender respondents experienced an intensified form of digital exclusion shaped by both stigma and invisibility, often resulting in isolation and disconnection from vital online platforms for education, welfare, and expression. The study draws on psychological frameworks such as stereotype threat, digital self-efficacy, and learned helplessness, and sociological theories of digital capital and structural exclusion to interpret the findings. This paper argues for a multidimensional understanding of digital inequality that centers on both technological infrastructure and psychological access. The findings have significant implications for digital inclusion policies, especially those aiming to empower marginalized identities in rural India.